4th European Feminist Research Conference

Body Gender Subjectivity. Crossing Disciplinary and Institutional Borders

Bologna, Italy 29th September - 1st October, 2000

Workshop 9: Gender, Ethnicity and Nationalism: European Perspectives

 

Ethnic Bodies.

Visual Representations of Finland and Russia in the Early 20th Century Finland

 

Johanna Valenius, Department of Political History, 20014 University of Turku, Finland

email: johanna.valenius@utu.fi, tel: + 358 2 333 5367, fax: + 358 2 333 6585

 

ABSTRACT: In this paper the interconnections of gender, body, sexuality, ethnicity and nationalism are discussed by analyzing propagandistic caricatures from the early 20th century featuring the Finnish Maiden - the personification of Finland - which is being attacked and (sexually) assaulted by a sinister Russian male Cossack. The focus is on the ways their bodies and sexuality were employed to produce the Finnish nation and the ethnic Other (Russian). It is argued that Russian ethnicity was produced through the body of the dark malefigure. Furthermore, it is argued along the line of Nira Yuval-Davis that ethnicity is not specific to minority groups of darker skin color, but that there are hegemonic ethnicities - in this case “Finnishness” - that have naturalized their social and cultural constructions. This was done in the female form of the Maiden, a fair and virginal figure which was used to construct Finnishness as Western European, i.e. Scandinavian and not as non-European Asian, i.e. Russian. The analysis draws from feminist art history, Lynda Nead’s and Nanette Salomon’s studies of the female nude in particular.

 

 

 

 

This paper is a part of my PhD project with the working title of Four Faces of the Maiden. The Representations of Finnishness in the Early 20th Century Finnish Maiden Caricatures which I am preparing at the Department of Political History, University of Turku. In my study I will analyze representations of Finnishness as they were produced in the various forms of the Finnish Maiden - the visual personification of the Finnish nation[1] - in political caricatures dating from 1899-1914 with the focus on gender, sexuality and the body. The purpose of this paper is to make sense of the third concept, the body. Therefore the paper is devoted to theoretical discussion, concentrating mainly on the writings of the two feminist art historians, Lynda Nead and Nanette Salomon. I will, nevertheless, attempt to tie the theoretical points raised more closely to the caricatures in question. In the six pictures discussed (see pages in end of the text) the Finnish nation in the body of the Maiden is the target of (sexual) assault. I will analyze the ways their bodies and sexuality were employed in the production of the Finnish nation and the ethnic Other, the Russians.

 

The historical context for these caricatures is the second period of oppression (1908-1914) when the Russian regime extended its legislation to the Finnish Grand Duchy. The new legislation stipulated that all matters concerning state interest belonged to the realm of Russian authorities, and Finland was left only with the right to voice its opinion. Picture 2 refers directly to these policies. Among the Finnish nationalists this was interpreted as an attempt to put an end to the Finnish nation. Hence the term ‘period of oppression’ is used in Finnish historical research of this era. The turn of the century was a time when the Finnish nation was under conscious construction for the threat of russification was feared to suffocate the nation. The Finnish nation and Finnish identity had to be produced and reproduced in culture and politics, and the Finnish Maiden and her body played a crucial part in this process.

 

 

Contained Bodies

 

I start the discussion with the one caricature that has captured my attention more than the others. “The Love of A Cannibal” (picture 1) is a curious picture among the pool of over 100 caricatures I have. It is sinister in an openly titillating manner. The style in this picture is different than in any other caricature of the period featuring the rape theme for the female figure is more erotized than the Maidens in general. Her nudity and the postures of the both characters allude to white slavery. The Maiden has turned her back to the male figure and she has bowed her head as a sign of fear and submission. He wears military outfit in a show of power. She is available. Her white skin is in a stark contrast with his black hand stroking hungrily the young woman. The caption says, “ »I love Finland» said Deutrich — reached to eat”. On the foreground there are bones left from earlier meals. The man in the picture, W.F. Deutrich was a Russian bureaucrat — and not an African — and a member of a Russian-Finnish committee appointed to deliberate on the new legislation I mentioned in the beginning of this paper. The desire to eat Finland refers to contemporary nationalist rhetoric where some Russian authorities were called ‘the devourers of Finland’.     

 

Art historians and other researchers of visual material have long reflected on the representation and significations of nude bodies.The British art historian Marcia Pointon has in her analysis of Eugène Delacroix’s famous “La Liberté guidant le Peuple”(1830) written about the visual paradox which is associated with the representation of the naked body. She suggests that on the one hand nakedness symbolizes truth, on the other hand nudity implies sexuality.[2] Also Lynda Nead has pointed out in her study The Female Nude how in classic studies the nude is treated as a sexualized body. Discussions about the nude tend not, however, be gender neutral, but the assumption is that of a female nude - a heterosexual male viewer (Nead 1992, 13-14). Nanette Salomon in her article of the female nude, “The Venus Pudica: uncovering art history’s ‘hidden agendas’ and pernicious pedigrees” distinguishes between naked and nude as well, but she attributes the terms the other way round; female figure is naked and male figure nude (Salomon 1996, 73).

 

Following the traditional separation of naked from nude the naked female figure in “The Love of the Cannibal” is possible to interpret to symbolize on one level the nation’s inalienable right to existence. The picture nevertheless contains also sexual tension. The distinction between naked and nude has been, in fact, questioned in feminist research. The separation is based on the idea that in visual representation it would be possible to represent natural bodies free from mediation as such, purified from all meanings. Once these pure naked bodies were inflated with signification they would transform into the nude. Another prolematic point is that in traditional art history discourse these terms are usually gendered. Naked represents feminine emotion and nature which are appropriated, rationalized and taken into the masculine realm of culture by turning the naked figure into a work of art — the nude — through esthetic conventions. In semiotic terms naked would be denotative and nude connotative (Nead 1992, 14-16).

 

This separation runs into problems when its ideological debt to the binary system as an actuality, and not as a cultural symbolic construction is recognized. Once the constructed nature of the duality is understood we are able see that there is no original denotative body which exists outside of representation for

 

[---] even at the most basic levels the body is always produced through representation. Within social, cultural and psychic formations, the body is rendered dense with meaning and significance, and the claim that the body ever can be outside of representation is itself inscribed with symbolic value. There can be no naked ‘other’ to the nude, for the body is always in representation.[3]

 

To represent a female body is therefore both an act of appropriation and an act of regulation (Nead 1992, 9). The body as a site for power relations was put forth by Michel Foucault. Using the making of soldier in the 18th century as an example in his Discipline and Punish Foucault analyzes the production of docile bodies[4] which are not only useful and efficient, but also obedient. The subjection of the body is attained by methods which Foucault calls ‘disciplines’[5]. Many disciplinary methods had been in existence in monasteries, armies and workshops long before the 18th century, but now for the first time disciplines were not directed only at the growth in skills and efficiency of the body, “but at the formation of a relation that in the mechanism itself makes it more obedient as it becomes more useful, and conversely.” Disciplines, or policies of coersion, which manifest themselves in gestures, attitudes and movements enter the body into “a machinery of power that explores it, breaks it down and rearranges it.”  This leads to ‘political anatomy’ and ‘mechanics of power’ that define how bodies — docile bodies — can be made to do what, and function in a way they are needed. Control is not exercised only from the outside, but also within the subject through self-regulatory practices (Foucault 1979, 135 - 139, quotations in p. 138; Foucault 1990, 139; Nead 1992, 10 ). The degree of control does nonetheless follow gender lines for rational men are regarded to be better equipped to control their own bodies while women’s bodies due to the lack of rational capabilities need to be contained by outside forces (Salomon 1996, 75).

 

At the core of the Foucauldian conception of the body are appropriation, control, homogenization and utilization. Power relations figure also in feminist art histories and in studies of the body many of which, in fact, tend to owe to Foucault, although he does not address the sexed differences in the production of male and female bodies. Nead argues that one of the principal goals of the representation of the female nude has been the containment and regulation of the female sexual body. The methods and artistic conventions correspond to two major ways the human body is perceived — a container and a surface (Nead 1992, 6-7; about gender blindness in Foucault see Grosz 1994, xiii).

 

 

Body as a framed container[6]

 

In many cultures the human body is regarded to be a container, and Finnish culture is by no means an exception in this. The folklorist Satu Apo notes how in Carelian folklore the male body was a sound vessel while the female body was broken and leaking, a polluted and polluting container. This was based on the most visible forms of biological reproduction, i.e. pregnancy and parturition. The female body was a gateway, a liminal space between two worlds, this material and hereafter. Again, biological reproduction was the factor as Apo puts it “man goes into woman’s body, and child pushes its way out of it”. Due to its transitory nature the female body was believed to have supernatural powers at the same time it was considered to be imperfect (Apo 1995, 26-29, quotation p. 29; see also Nead 1992, 7-8; McDowell 1999, 44-45).

 

The association of purity and righteousness with a full vessel and wrongdoing with leaky empty ones, and their reference to female sexuality is recurrent and universal. The image of the broken or empty vessel was employed for instance in Renaissance art where the sign of virginity and continence was the sieve of the Vestal Tuccia, a sieve that held water when carried by a chaste virgin. The Bible, Matt. 25, knows the story about five foolish virgins who were excluded from the heavenly feast because they had not taken oil along with them, and for that reason their lamps had gone out. The other five, the wise ones, whose lamps were not empty were invited inside to join the festivities (Warner 1996, 241-255, figures 69-72, 74).

 

All the filth and evil issuing from the female body needs to be contained. This is achieved by enfolding the body in the thight shroud of Art. Nead writes how bodies are ‘framed’. At its simplest, the frame is the frame of the picture which encloses some things with the body in the same space, and crops others outside. Framing can take place also on the surface of the body by covering it with an impenetrable layer, i.e. art. Since the formless female body does not comply with the esthetic ideals of art it has to be transformed to the hermetically sealed ideal female body (Nead 1992, 8-9, 18). It is like the sieve of Tuccia that lets nothing out. Paradoxically, the chaste female body bottles up all the dirt and evil if nothing is allowed to escape (Nead 1992, 7-9; Warner 1996, 241-251). Conversely, all that penetrates the body — i.e. the nation or state — disturbs harmony. Personifications indeed tend to be literally cuirassed against the enemy. We only need to picture Britannia whose breastplate, helmet and shield protect the body and its borders to assure the impregnability of the nation against attacks. Finnish national symbolism lacks these kind of armor, but the Maiden was shielded in other ways. In “The Right to Voice Opinion” (picture 2) and in “No” (picture 4) she is dressed in a national or a typical rural folk costume which covers her body in full length. She is weaponless but with her concealing clothing she is as fortified as her more militant European sisters, those dispenser of justice. The body of the personification is a container that stores in all the values and ideals bestowed on the nation. It furthermore brings those abstract ideals to a tangible level. The nation is no more imagined, or ‘imaged’[7] in the case of visual representations, community, but an object that can be seen and touched.

 

Whether the body is viewed mainly as a container or a surface it is its boundaries that become the site of signification, and danger, for that is where possible transgression takes place. The boundaries of the body cannot be separated from other cultural and social boundaries, but bodily transgression, for instance the grotesque, is also social deviation (Nead 1992, 6-7; Russo 1994, 7-8; Bahtin 1995, 20, 130; Berger 1994, 65-66, 147). Nowadays the unrulyness of the female body is tamed and disciplined into Foucauldian docility in gyms where “excess” fat needs to be weight-lifted and starved, or in a surgeon’s office sucked away until women look like ‘boys with breasts’[8]. In other words, the ideal female body is masculine.

 

 

Fennia Pudica

 

Let us return to “The Love of A Cannibal”. The Maiden in that caricature is eroticized particularly through her body position. Since the Antiquity the idealized female has been represented in Western art in the form of the Venus Pudica, a figure that covers her genital area with her hand. The pudica is shown either standing (e.g. “Knidian Aphrodite” (c. 340 BC) by Praxiteles,  “The Birth of Venus” (c. 1480) by Botticelli) or reclining (e.g. Titian’s “Venus of Urbino” (1528), Manet’s “Olympia” (1863)). The fundamental difference with the male nude is that while the female figures cover their genitals and/or breasts the male ones cover nothing. Quite expectably viewers’ attention is drawn exactly to those parts of the body that are shielded from eyes. Nanette Salomon summarizes

In any reading, the hand that points also covers and that which covers also points.

 

There has been, in fact, debates whether the Greek figure is covering her pubis from the onlookers, or is she pointing to her reproductive powers. Whatever the original intention of the artist were, and how his contemporaries read the images is now beyond recovery. The point is that pudica’s pose does not give any room to an alternative reading, but we are forced to read the work of art through a sexual narrative. Yet, since the pose is so common in Western art tradition, we do not anymore see her nudity, but ingest it (Salomon 1996, 63, ft 23, 75-76). In the end she is reduced to her sexuality and her body is fetishized. She is also exposed and made vulnerable. Man who does not claim attention to any body part in particular, however, stays coherent and rational (Salomon 1996, 70-73, quote in p. 73; see also Nead 1992, 17).

 

The classic pose of the pudica manifests and reproduces the hierarchial power relations between the genders, relations which are structured on difference and defined as sexual. The word pudica alone, which means modest or shameful, is used solely with the images of women. Pudica is etymologically related to ‘pudenda’ which has the double meaning of shame and genitalia (more of the etymology of pudica see Salomon 1996, 74-75). There exists another term, ‘contrapposto’, which is mathematical, rational and philosophical depiction of a figure standing and facing the viewer. For instance, Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language gives contrapposto the definition

 

Fine Arts. a representation of the human body in which the forms are organized on a varying or curving axis to provide an asymmetrical balance to the figure.

 

Although contrapposto appears gender neutral describing “the human body”, it is, nevertheless, applied to male figures only while female figures are talked about with sexualized and bodily terminology (Salomon 1996, 79-83). Incidently, Webster’s does not have a definition for pudica.

 

In “The Love of a Cannibal” the female figure has a lot similar with the pudica, she is a kind of Fennia Pudica. The woman in the picture has her back turned towards to viewer and the withdrawing pose draws attention to her nudity. His groping hand on her lower back, and his covetous expression give room to imagination. The situation involves “a discourse of desire”, “a fantasy potential” and “the hint of unspeakable things to come” to cite the British art historian Linda Nochlin (Nochlin 1989, 8). Salomon employs the concept of “the narrative of fear” which the crouching pose produces. Vulnerability and desirability are narratively associated. “The hint of unspeakable things to come” also turn viewers to voyers wanting to see what is not shown (Salomon 1996, 74, 77). The same sinister, yet titillating atmosphere is, of course, found in every caricature.

 

In “The Love of a Cannibal” the Finnish Maiden is an object of desire, or desires, one of which originates within the picture, and the other without. Desire in this discourse is heterosexual for, as many scholars argue, the inherent homoeroticism of the male nude, such as the Greek kouroi or Donatello’s “David” statues (1409, 1430), is too obvious. Sexualized and vulnerable female is an object where homosocial groups, such as nationalist movements, can safely bury their homosexual quality while concurrently producing hierarchial gender system where the female body is the location of masculine power. Male bonding does not have to take place in suspect circumstances directly between men, but through a shared space outside the immediate male group, on woman.[9]

 

 

Ethnic Bodies

 

 

Masculine power is to be exercised on other feminine or feminized spaces as well. Anne McClintock argues that in the colonial times, and even before that, terra incognita was feminized. Far-off continents — Asia, the Americas and Africa — were libidinously erotized, and especially women were figured as sexually ravenous and bordering animals in their corporeality. These porno-tropics as McClintock calls these projections, stemmed from European forbidden sexual desires and fears. Foreign lands were considered to be a ‘virgin territory’ which the male explorers and colonial masters with their mission to boldly go where no man has gone before conquered, domesticated and inseminated with Western male rationality and culture. Women became boundary markers for the Empire (McClintock 1995, 21-28).

 

Common was also the fear of being engulfed by the unknown. According to McClintock, this cannibal trope was “projected onto the colonized peoples as their determination to devour the intruder whole” (McClintock 1995, 27). When we remember that some Russian bureaucrats were called ‘the devourers of Finland’ we can see the same pattern rising. Granted, the Russians were not the subjected people, quite the contrary, but they were very similarly dehumanized as were the native people in the colonies. Being eaten may also be interpreted to be a metaphor for being raped, and the Russian’s desire for the innocent Maiden gets a perveted and violent form. The love in “The Love of A Cannibal” is dirty and destructive, and not pure and unselfish as people’s love for their fatherland. The Russian bureaucracy is made to appear licentious, and to express all the evil breeding there the cartoonist Rafael Rindell has employed the dichotomy of black (night, wickedness)/white (day, goodness). The strangeness of Deutrich is accentuated by giving him a “primitive” form. Since the cartoon does not depict the actual eating it produces the narrative of fear, that hint of unspeakable things to come. 

 

In his examination of the interconnections of nationalism and sexuality the British sosiologist Sam Pryke has found that in national conflict situations the image of the enemy nation as the sexually degenerate and abnormal Other is often produced in propaganda (Pryke 1998, 538-539). Similar images were mobilized in Finland where the Russians were seen as debauched cossacks beating and raping the Finnish Maiden. Caricatures and other pictures alluding to sexual violence had an ample ground at the turn of 19th and 20th century Finland. Juha Ala has argued in his Suomi-neito ja suojelusikä. Sortovuosien psykohistoriaa (The Finnish Maiden and the Age of Consent. Psychohistory of the Periods of Oppression) that the debate over the legislation about sexual assaults of minors gained momentum concurrently with the russification procedures. Actual offences against girls and young women were more or less explicitly associated with the policies of the Russian Regime although the perpretators were not Russians themselves. Finland was, to use psychohistory terminology, as the Finnish Maiden perceived in group fantasies to have become an object of sexual offence (Ala 1999, 36-37, 80, 212).

 

Perhaps we have here again a porno-tropic (or is it a porno-trope?), only this time the projection is toward one’s own people. The rape imagery was particularly fitting since the personification of the nation was this virginal figure whose boundaries were unbroken. Her body was an immaculate space which the enemy attempted to invade and pollute. Finland as a maiden corresponded to the continence expected from young upper and middle class women. In the beginning of the 20th century sexuality was taboo, and ignorance of sexual matters was a yardstick of young woman’s chastity and morality (Ollila 1998, 130-133). Women who openly expressed their sexuality were deemed dangerous (Rojola 1992, 137).

 

The strategies of bodily differentiations, hierarchization and exclusion are found in the formation and maintenance of nations as well (Roach Pierson 2000, 44) of which the sexually and bodily degenerate Russian and the pure white Maiden are a case in point. Iris Marion Young has unravelled the mechanism of ‘cultural imperialism’ that constructs inferior and dominant groups. The corporeal plays a crucial role in this mechanism for the inferior and to-be-dominated people are reduced to their undesirable bodies. Those in dominant position are constructed as neutral, universal and disembodied. Generally this position is occupied by white(s and) males. The female reduced to her sexualized body is the Other, and her position is narrowed even further through the idealization of her body as slim, tall and white, the kind the majority of women will never, to begin with, even have a chance to acquire (McDowell 1999, 48).

 

While in the context of autonomous Finnish Grand Duchy we certainly cannot employ these terms as such without being guilty of oversimplification and flawed logic, I find the mechanism a useful tool for my analysis. We have to disengage ourselves from the material power relations of dominant and subjected groups, and shift the emphasis to ‘we’ versus ‘they’. ‘They’, the Russians, are seen as filthy and degenerate creatures imprisoned in their dark bodies and bodily urges. The threat and depravity of the cossacks is accentuated by the use of white-black, day-night and light-dark metaphors implying that the Russians are creatures of the dark. The use of contrast and the mythologization of the world of politics as the art historian E.H. Gombrich calls this employment of natural metaphors is an effective weapon for a cartoonist. One’s moral qualities or the lack of them are naturalized by equating them with nature’s phenomena and by cleaverly fishing in the pool of deep-seated primordial fears (Gombrich 1985, 138-142).

 

Opposite to the dark Russian is the beautiful blond Finnish Maiden. At the turn of the 19th and 20th century there was a persistent assumption that the Finnish race — as if we could talk about Finnish or any other race for that matter — was not too beautiful. The perceived ugliness was based on a belief that the Finns were Asian or Mongols whose facial features were different, and thus considered uglier, from Scandinavian and Teutonic ones. Finnish anthropology and geography books were filled with drawings depicting typical people living in various parts of the country. Also foreign studies recognized the Finnish people. There is, in fact, in McClintock’s Imperial Leather two pictures, one titled “Morphological tree of the human race” and the other “Aesthetic tree of the human race” where the Finnish people had found their way. Needless to say that Finns did not score high.[10]

 

The Finnish Maiden was an attempt to construct the Finnish people, the Finnish body, as non-Asian, non-Mongol and non-Russian, but as a Western body, white, tall and proud. This construction of ethnic bodies is possible when we remember that national identity is not only experienced commonality with others, it includes also differences between ‘us’ and ‘them’. These differences are constructed with narratives of common origin and common destiny as well as other identity narratives. An important and often mobilized element in this process is ethnicity (Yuval-Davis 1998, 43-44). Ethnicity is not something that easily comes into mind in Finnish discussion about Finnishness, in the context of the early 20th century in particular. At the most, the term could be used in association with such “obviously ethnic” minorities such as the Romanis, the Sami people, and Jews. Ethnicity is not, however, specific to minority groups of darker skin color. As Yuval-Davis points out, there are hegemonic ethnicities, and one of the measures of their success is that they have naturalized their social and cultural constructions (Yuval-Davis 1998, 44). ‘We’, the Finns, are constructed and naturalized through the idealized female form. The Finnish Maiden is not just any woman, but the hermetically sealed Woman shrouded in art. Her body is contained, and the boundary of her body that before was the site of danger is now tamed to docility. 

 

 

Conclusion

 

I set out to write a paper about ethnic bodies, but soon I found myself asking the question “what is the body and how make sense of it?” This paper has largely been one attempt to answer that question. Ethnic quality of the body was left to be tackled more closely later on, although I did allow myself to maintain the title Ethnic Bodies. What became clear was that bodies are much more than a slab of meat. They are cultural and political constructions. Regarding nation-building and constructing national identities, bodies are an powerful agent. Gender, sexuality, and yes, also ethnicity circle around the body as they are inscripted on the body’s surface. This does not mean that the body is a tabula rasa upon which meanings and significations are imposed, but rather there is a complex relationship between the body, gender, sexuality, nationality and ethnicity which cannot be reduced to a linear causal chain beginning from here and ending in there.

 

The female body, in particular, is liable to be used in nation formation. There are striking parallels in the discourses of the female body and nation/geographical territories. They both need to be tamed and civilized by containing their boundaries for boundaries are dangerous. They are sites of possible transgression. The female body with its oozing filth and excess formlessness has to be shrouded tightly. Nations and territories have to be fortified on their borders against the enemy. Also women have to be guarded against the attacks of enemies for wars are fought in the name of women and children. Geographical formations are seen to follow the contours of the female body, and the nation and its territories offer a soothing bosom for her tired sons.

 

I did not have a chance in this paper to address the question of the personification as a symbol for a nation, but I would like to end with a question concerning that. We tend to think that the female figure symbolizes the nation, and through that figure the nation is signified with certain meanings. Here the existence of a pure, unmediated nation is assumed, a nation that comes outside the system of signification and is filled with meanings by the personification. The nation is, however, discursively produced, and nationalist — women as well as men, but mostly men — imagine the nation as a woman. Therefore, perhaps we should think the relationship between the nation and its personification from another angle. As there was no denotative naked body which nude would sexualize, could it be said that there is no pure nation which the personification would feminize, but that the nation is already feminized. Instead of saying that the female figures symbolize the nation, maybe we should say that the figures represent the nation that symbolizes the woman. This way the bipolar linear chain of significations would receive a third factor that returns the chain to the woman?

 

 

Picture 1. The Love of A Cannibal. Velikulta 16.5. 1914.

Picture 2. The Right to Voice Opinion.Tuulispää 1.4. 1910.

Picture 3. Little Finland And Giant Ivan. Fyren 9.4. 1910.

Picture 4. No. Velikulta 29.9. 1910.

Picture 5. The Defenceless. Velikulta 11.5. 1911.

Picture 6. Finnish Maiden’s New Year’s Morning. Tuulispää 5.1. 1912.

Illustrations

 

Fyren             1910

 

Tuulispää        1910

                      1912

 

Velikulta         1910

                      1911

1914

 

 

Literature

 

Ala Juha: Suomi-neito ja suojelusikä. Sortovuosien psykohistoriaa. Gaudeamus 1999.

 

Apo Satu: Naisen väki. Tutkimuksia suomalaisten kansanomaisesta kulttuurista ja ajattelusta. Hanki ja Jää 1995.

 

Bahtin Mihail: François Rabelais. Renessanssin ja keskiajan nauru. Suomentaneet Tapani Laine ja Paula Nieminen. Taifuuni 1995.

 

Berger Arthur Asa: Li’l Abner. A Study of American Satire. University Press of Mississippi 1994.

 

Butler Judith: Gender Trouble. Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge 1990.

                      — Bodies That Matter. On the Discursive Limits of “Sex”. Routledge 1993. 

 

Foucault Michel: Discipline and Punish. The Birth of the Prison. Translated from the French by Allan Sheridan. Penguin Books 1979. (Orig. Surveiller et punir. Naissance de la prison. 1975)

—                                                The History of Sexuality. Volume 1: An Introduction. Translated from the French by Robert Hurley. Vintage 1990. (Orig. Histoire de la sexualité. La Volenté de savoir.)

—                                                Tarkkailla ja rangaista. Suomentanut Eevi Nivanka. Otava 2000. (Orig. Surveiller et punir. Naissance de la prison. 1975)

 

Gombrich E.H.: Meditations on a Hobby Horse And Other Essays on the Theory of Art. Phaidon Press 1985 (Orig. 1963)

 

Grosz Elizabeth: Volatile Bodies. Toward a Corporeal Feminism. Indiana University Press 1994.

Koivunen Anu: Isänmaan moninaiset äidinkasvot. Sotavuosien naisten elokuva sukupuoliteknologiana. Suomen elokuvatutkimuksen seura 1995.

 

McClintock Anne: Imperial Leather. Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest. Routledge 1995.

 

McDowell Linda: Gender, Identity & Place. Understanding Feminist Geographies. Polity Press 1999.

 

Nead Lynda: The Female Nude. Art, Obscenity and Sexuality. Routledge 1992.

 

Nochlin Linda: Women, Art, and Power and Other Essays. Harper & Row 1989.

 

Ollila Anne: Jalo velvollisuus. Virkanaisena 1800-luvun lopun Suomessa. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura 1998.

 

Pointon Marcia: Naked Authority. The Body in Western Painting 1830-1908. Cambridge University Press 1990.

 

Pryke Sam: “Nationalism and sexuality, what are the issues?” Nations and Nationalism. Journal of the Association for the Study of Ethnicity and Nationalism. Vol 4, Part 4, October 1998. Cambridge University Press 1998.

 

Rojola Lea: “’Konsa susi olen, niin suden tekojakin teen’ Uuden naisen uhkaava seksuaalisuus Aino Kallaksen Sudenmorsiammessa.” In Vampyyrinainen ja Kenkkuinniemen sauna. Suomalainen kaksikymmenluku ja modernin mahdollisuus. Toimittanut Tapio Onnela. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura 1992.

 

Roach Pierson Ruth: “Gendered, Racialized, Crossed With Empire.” In Gendered Nations. Nationalisms and Gender Order in the Long Nineteenth Century. Edited by Ida Blom, Karen Hagemann, Catherine Hall. Berg 2000.

 

Russo Mary: The Female Grotesque. Risk, Excess And Modernity. Routledge 1994.

 

Salomon Nanette: “The Venus Pudica: uncovering art history’s ‘hidden agendas’ and pernicious pedigrees.” In Generations & Geographies in the Visual Arts. Feminist Readings. Edited by Griselda Pollock. Routledge 1996.

 

Warner Marina: Monuments & Maidens. The Allegory of the Female Form. Vintage 1996.

 

Yuval-Davis Nira: Gender & Nation. Sage Publications 1998.